Everything below concerns Enkephalinase. We keep the language plain, cite what the science says, and separate well-supported claims from open questions.
Updated 2026-06-07. Numbers and descriptions here follow the published literature rather than marketing material.
Handling follows standard practice for research peptides. Material is weighed in a low-humidity environment because the powder absorbs atmospheric moisture. Purity is reported as the percentage area of the main peak in a chromatogram, with specifications commonly set at 95 percent or higher; values below that threshold indicate the presence of truncated or modified species. Residual trifluoroacetate from purification is often present and may affect mass balance. Certificates of analysis should state the analytical method, the column and gradient used, and the lot-specific retention time so that results can be compared across suppliers.
Identity and purity of selank are established with reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry. The peptide elutes from C18 columns with acetonitrile gradients in water containing trifluoroacetic acid or formic acid, and detection is usually performed by ultraviolet absorbance near 214 nm. Electrospray ionization in positive mode gives a doubly protonated ion near m/z 377, consistent with a mass of about 752 Da. Amino acid analysis or tandem mass spectrometry of fragment ions confirms the sequence. Because the molecule has no aromatic residues, it lacks a usable 280 nm chromophore, so low-wavelength detection or mass spectrometry is required.
Peptide bonds in selank are susceptible to hydrolysis under strongly acidic or basic conditions, and the terminal proline residues are vulnerable to exopeptidase activity in biological samples. Lyophilized powder stored dry at -20 °C typically remains stable for extended periods, whereas aqueous solutions degrade faster and may lose measurable purity within days to weeks depending on pH, temperature, and microbial load. Repeated freeze-thaw cycles promote aggregation and adsorption to container surfaces. For analytical work, solutions are usually prepared fresh, kept cold, and used within a single working day.
Proposed mechanisms centre on modulation of the GABAergic system, with reports of altered expression of genes related to GABA-A receptor subunits and changed monoamine turnover. Some studies describe inhibition of enkephalinase, the enzyme that degrades endogenous enkephalins, which may prolong opioid peptide signalling. Effects on brain-derived neurotrophic factor and on cytokine expression have also been reported. These findings come largely from animal models and small human studies, and the precise primary target remains unresolved.
Published clinical evidence is limited. Most controlled trials were conducted in Russia, enrolled modest numbers of participants, and appeared in Russian-language journals, which restricts independent verification. Reported outcomes include lower anxiety scores, improved attention and memory measures, and changes in fatigue ratings. Reviews written in English note methodological limitations such as small samples and inconsistent endpoints. Whether the compound produces clinically meaningful benefit relative to established anxiolytics is therefore an open question rather than an established finding.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Identity confirmation | Reversed-phase HPLC retention time versus reference standard | Retention depends on column, gradient, and ion-pairing agent |
| Mass confirmation | Electrospray or MALDI mass spectrometry | Doubly protonated ion near m/z 377 is consistent with about 752 Da |
| Typical purity specification | 95 percent or higher by chromatographic peak area | Lower values suggest truncated or modified peptide species |
| Storage of lyophilized powder | -20 °C, desiccated, protected from light | Powder tolerates long storage better than solution |
| Storage of solution | 2-8 °C for short periods | Freeze-thaw cycling promotes aggregation and surface adsorption |
Naming conventions place Selank in the same research family as Semax, another Russian-developed peptide investigated for cognitive effects. The two compounds share a lineage but differ in sequence and in the biological systems proposed as their targets. Semax descends from ACTH fragments, whereas Selank descends from tuftsin. Publications sometimes identify Selank by its full peptide sequence or by laboratory codes rather than one uniform trade name. Because replication outside Russia is limited, reports on its properties are best read alongside the study design and the purity of the material tested.
Selank is a synthetic heptapeptide developed in Russia during the 1990s. Researchers at the Institute of Molecular Genetics of the Russian Academy of Sciences designed it as a stabilized analog of tuftsin, a naturally occurring immunomodulatory tetrapeptide. The compound has been studied primarily for its reported anxiolytic and nootropic effects. It remains largely unknown in Western pharmacology and is not approved as a medicine by major regulators such as the FDA or the EMA.
Clinical evidence comes mainly from small studies conducted in Russia, several of which were open-label or lacked robust blinding. Reported outcomes include lower anxiety scores, changes in attention measures, and effects on asthenic states following illness. Sample sizes are typically in the tens of participants, and independent replication outside the region is scarce. Reviews published in English generally note the limited methodological quality of the underlying trials. Whether the compound produces clinically meaningful effects under rigorous conditions remains unresolved.
Proposed mechanisms center on modulation of the GABA system, but no single molecular target has been confirmed. Rodent studies report changes in GABA-A receptor expression and in the turnover of serotonin, dopamine, and norepinephrine in several brain regions. Increases in brain-derived neurotrophic factor and its receptor have also been described after repeated administration. These findings come largely from animal models, and the degree to which they describe human neurochemistry remains an open question. The mechanism is best characterized as multi-system and not fully resolved.
=== Cannabis === Ford supports allowing licensed private retailers to sell cannabis, rather than a government monopoly like the LCBO. Ford opposed the legalization of recreational cannabis. On January 22, 2019, Huffington Post reported that Ford's youngest daughter Kyla, a bodybuilder and fitness trainer, had posted videos promoting health benefits of CBD oil, a cannabis product which typically does not contain the psychoactive compound present in marijuana. Various publications claimed Kyla's promotion wasn't lawful. Ford's daughter took down the posts, but neither Ford nor his daughter commented on them.
A vacutainer blood collection tube is a sterile glass or plastic test tube with a colored rubber stopper creating a vacuum seal inside of the tube, facilitating the drawing of a predetermined volume of liquid. Vacutainer tubes may contain additives designed to stabilize and preserve the specimen prior to analytical testing. Tubes are available with a safety-engineered stopper, with a variety of labeling options and draw volumes. The color of the top indicates the additives in the vial. Vacutainer tubes were invented by Joseph Kleiner in 1949. Vacutainer is a registered trademark of Becton Dickinson, which manufactures and sells the tubes today.
== Career == Balalaie joined the faculty of K. N. Toosi University of Technology as an Assistant Professor (1997-2003), was promoted to Associate Professor (2003-2007), and has served as a Full Professor since 2007. Throughout his career, he has maintained research collaborations with German institutions through multiple Alexander von Humboldt Foundation fellowships, beginning in 2002. His collaborations include work at Heidelberg University, University of Freiburg, Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, and the University of Duisburg-Essen. From 2015 to 2020, he served as the Scientific Ambassador of the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation in Iran, facilitating scientific cooperation between Iranian and German researchers.
=== MSC based therapy === In certain studies, matrix-induces mesenchymal stem cell implantation showed earlier clinical improvements when compared to simple implantation of chondrocytes. The MSCs promoted cartilage regeneration in knees that had osteoarthritis and also reduced pain and disability.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
Between 280 and 275 BCE the Tarentine War was fought between Rome and Taranto. The latter sought help from Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, who in 280, together with his allies, the Bruttians and Lucanians, defeated the Romans at the Battle of Heraclea, thanks to the use of elephants. But Pyrrhus was later defeated by the Romans at Maluentum (current Benevento) in 275 and retreated to Sicily, where Syracuse needed help against the Carthaginians. Transiting through Calabria, Pyrrhus' army is said to have sacked the shrine of Persephone in Locri, triggering the wrath of the gods. This, combined with the fact that Rome had formed alliances with some of the last poleis of Magna Graecia, including Reggio, caused Pyrrhus to return home. After Pyrrhus was eventually defeated, to avoid Roman revenge the Bruttii submitted willingly and gave up half of the Sila, a mountainous plateau valuable for pitch and timber. Rome subjugated southern Italy by means of treaties with the cities.
(2026) describe a late Pliocene proboscidean and even-toed ungulate assemblage (the Dongyancun Fauna) from the Sanmenxia Basin (Zhongtiao Mountains; China), including the first reported Pliocene record of Leptobos in northern China, and providing evidence of composition of large herbivore assemblages in northern China shortly before Quaternary climate changes, arrival of true horses and appearance of Mammuthus meridionalis. Shidqi et al. (2026) review the fossil record of Pleistocene mammals from Sumatra (Indonesia), reporting evidence of presence of mammals with Indochinese and Sundaic affinities and evidence of limited taxonomic losses since the late Middle Pleistocene. Zhang et al. (2026) report the discovery of new fossil material of Early Pleistocene mammals from the Yeka locality in the Shangri-La region (Yunnan, China), and interpret the composition of the studied assemblage as indicative of an environment including a forest mixed with a grassland landscape. Linchamps et al. (2026) study the composition of the Early Pleistocene small mammal assemblage from the Gondolin GD2 locality (South Africa), interpreted as indicative of environments dominated by grassland and open savannas.
Measurement tools, such as goniometers and inclinometers, aid in standardized quantification of joint motion relative to normative values or ranges. Tests that follow functional movements, such as reaching overhead, squatting, or rotating the neck, are used to evaluate whether reduced ROM translates into activity limitation. When hypomobility is regional, clinicians can use condition-specific values to compare the patient's ROM values against. For instance, in the shoulder, adhesive capsulitis (frozen shoulder) is defined by marked loss of both active and passive motion (particularly external rotation and abduction). For the knee, postoperative arthrofibrosis is typically diagnosed when extension loss exceeds 10° or flexion is limited to less than 100°, with more severe forms showing a flexion deficit of 25° or greater. In the spine, decreased ROM is assessed using values developed for ankylosing spondylitis and related disorders. The Modified Schober Test measures lumbar flexion. An increase of less than 5 cm indicates limited motion, chest expansion of 2.5 cm or less suggests thoracic restriction, and an occiput-to-wall distance greater than 2 cm shows thoracic or cervical extension limitation. The Bath Ankylosing Spondylitis Metrology Index (BASMI) provides a composite score summarizing these spinal mobility measures and is widely used to quantify skeletal hypomobility.
== Prognosis == The progression of Becker muscular dystrophy is highly variable—much more so than Duchenne muscular dystrophy. There is also a form that may be considered as an intermediate between Duchenne and Becker MD (mild DMD or severe BMD). The severity of the disease may be indicated by the age of the patient at the onset of the disease. One study showed that there may be two distinct patterns of progression in Becker muscular dystrophy. Onset at around age 7 to 8 years of age shows more cardiac involvement and trouble climbing stairs by age 20, if onset is around age 12, there is less cardiac involvement.The quality of life for patients with Becker muscular dystrophy can be impacted by the symptoms of the disorder. However, with assistive devices, independence can be maintained. People affected by Becker muscular dystrophy can still maintain active lifestyles.
Strychnine was commonly used as an athletic performance enhancer and stimulant in the late 19th century and early 20th century. The best-known incident of this usage was during the 1904 Olympics marathon, when track-and-field athlete Thomas Hicks was administered a concoction of egg whites and brandy that contained strychnine by his assistants in an attempt to boost his stamina; Hicks did not know that it contained strychnine. Maximilian Theodor Buch proposed that strychnine was a cure for alcoholism. Although strychnine has no known addictive properties, in The Invisible Man (1897), H. G. Wells imagined the protagonist, Griffin, to be a strychnine addict:
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
== ABC News report == An 11-segment series of reports in March 2012 from ABC News brought widespread public attention to and raised consumer concerns about the product. The product was described as "essentially scrap meat pieces compressed together and treated with an antibacterial agent". Lean finely textured beef (LFTB) was referred to as "an unappetizing example of industrialized food production". The product has been characterized as "unappetizing, but perhaps not more so than other things that are routinely part of hamburger" by Sarah Klein, an attorney for the food safety program at the Center for Science in the Public Interest. Nutritionist Andy Bellatti has referred to the product as "one of many symptoms of a broken food system". Food policy writer Tom Laskawy noted that ammonium hydroxide is only one of several chemicals routinely added to industrially produced meat in the United States. It was reported at that time that 70% of ground beef sold in US supermarkets contained the additive, and that the USDA considered it as meat. The USDA issued a statement that LFTB was safe and had been included in consumer products for some time, and its Under Secretary of Agriculture for Food Safety Elisabeth A. Hagen stated that "The process used to produce LFTB is safe and has been used for a very long time. And adding LFTB to ground beef does not make that ground beef any less safe to consume".
Acute poisoning can be fatal, leading to cardiovascular collapse and death in 2–18 hours, and in general, is treated using a symptomatic and supportive approach. Diagnosis of toxicity is based on history and clinical presentation, and in general, precise plasma levels do not appear to provide useful relevant clinical information. Several levels of evidence strongly indicate diphenhydramine (similar to chlorpheniramine) can block the delayed rectifier potassium channel and, as a consequence, prolong the QT interval, leading to cardiac arrhythmias such as torsades de pointes. No specific antidote for diphenhydramine toxicity is known, but the anticholinergic syndrome has been treated with physostigmine for severe delirium or tachycardia. Benzodiazepines may be administered to decrease the likelihood of psychosis, agitation, and seizures in people who are prone to these symptoms.
=== Signalling of fetal maturation and parturition === As pregnancy advances to term, the fetal membranes undergo weakening. The amnion is vital in the synthesis of prostaglandins which reach the myometrium and create and initiate parturition. The chorion expresses chemicals that balance synthesis and metabolism of these prostaglandins to ensure that the myometrium is not activated pre-term. Prostaglandin E2 is thought to be synthesized by cells in the amnion and is essential in dilation of the cervix at the initiation of parturition. Glucocorticoids have been implicated in fetal maturation, regulation of immune response and many other pregnancy associated changes. As well as its function in parturition, Prostaglandin E2 is vital for fetal lung maturation. Additionally, there is an abundance of 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase 1 expressed in the foetal membranes. This enzyme converts biologically inactive cortisone into active cortisol, another chemical vital for fetal maturation and labour initiation.
The Neolithic Revolution (or First Agricultural Revolution) brought about an acceleration of technological innovation, and a consequent increase in social complexity. The invention of the polished stone axe was a major advance that allowed large-scale forest clearance and farming. This use of polished stone axes increased greatly in the Neolithic but was originally used in the preceding Mesolithic in some areas such as Ireland. Agriculture fed larger populations, and the transition to sedentism allowed for the simultaneous raising of more children, as infants no longer needed to be carried around by nomads. Additionally, children could contribute labor to the raising of crops more readily than they could participate in hunter-gatherer activities. With this increase in population and availability of labor came an increase in labor specialization. What triggered the progression from early Neolithic villages to the first cities, such as Uruk, and the first civilizations, such as Sumer, is not specifically known; however, the emergence of increasingly hierarchical social structures and specialized labor, of trade and war among adjacent cultures, and the need for collective action to overcome environmental challenges such as irrigation, are all thought to have played a role. The invention of writing led to the spread of cultural knowledge and became the basis for history, libraries, schools, and scientific research.
With insect infestation common in improperly stored provisions, soldiers would break up the hardtack and drop it into their morning coffee. This would not only soften the hardtack but the insects, mostly weevil larvae, would float to the top, and the soldiers could skim them off and eat the biscuits. The grubs "left no distinctive flavor behind." Some men turned hardtack into a mush by breaking it up with blows from their rifle butts, then adding water. If the men had a frying pan, they could cook the mush into a lumpy pancake; otherwise they dropped the mush directly on the coals of their campfire. They also mixed hardtack with brown sugar, hot water, and sometimes whiskey to create what they called a pudding, to serve as dessert.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
Identity is confirmed by matching the retention time in reversed-phase chromatography against a reference standard and by measuring the molecular mass with mass spectrometry. Tandem mass spectrometry or amino acid analysis can verify the sequence of the seven residues. Because the peptide contains no aromatic amino acids, detection at 280 nm is not useful.
Lyophilized powder is normally stored desiccated at -20 °C, protected from light and moisture. Powder kept under these conditions is generally stable for long periods. Solutions are less stable and are usually prepared immediately before use.
A purity value from one chromatographic method does not capture every possible impurity. Related peptides with similar retention behavior, counterions, and residual solvents may not appear in the same analysis. Independent testing with an orthogonal method provides stronger assurance of identity and content.
It is a seven-amino-acid peptide, Thr-Lys-Pro-Arg-Pro-Gly-Pro, produced by chemical synthesis rather than extracted from biological tissue. Its design is based on tuftsin, a natural immunomodulatory tetrapeptide. The C-terminal Pro-Gly-Pro segment is a common stabilising motif in short regulatory peptides.